MEDIEVAL HISTORY • 1096–1291
Explore the campaigns, commanders, victories, defeats and consequences of one of the most significant periods of medieval history.
BEFORE THE CAMPAIGNS
The Crusades were a series of religiously framed military campaigns that began in the late eleventh century. They involved European Christian powers, the Byzantine Empire and several Muslim states. Although the campaigns are strongly associated with Jerusalem and the Holy Land, crusading movements also occurred in other regions.
There is no reliable exact death toll for all the Crusades combined. Medieval sources did not systematically record casualties, and deaths came from battles, sieges, disease, famine and other causes.
Modern estimates vary enormously. A broad range sometimes cited is approximately 1–9 million deaths, while some historical estimates place the figure around 5–6 million.
⚠ These figures are estimates, not confirmed historical statistics.
THE BACKGROUND
In the eleventh century, the eastern Mediterranean was divided among several powerful political and religious powers. The Byzantine Empire faced military pressure in Anatolia, while Muslim dynasties controlled much of the Levant.
In 1095, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos appealed to the West for military assistance. Pope Urban II responded at the Council of Clermont, helping launch the movement that became the First Crusade.
Council of Clermont
Crusading armies begin moving east
Jerusalem captured by Crusader forces
CAMPAIGNS
Their results were very different from one campaign to another.
1096–1099
Crusader armies travelled through Constantinople and Anatolia before reaching the Levant. Jerusalem was captured in 1099 and several Crusader states were established.
1147–1149
Launched after the fall of the County of Edessa. The campaign attempted to strengthen the Crusader position but failed to achieve its principal objectives.
1189–1192
The campaign followed Saladin's reconquest of Jerusalem. Richard I achieved important military victories, but Jerusalem remained under Muslim control.
1202–1204
The expedition was diverted from its intended destination. Crusader forces captured and sacked Constantinople in 1204.
1217–1221
Crusader forces targeted Egypt and captured Damietta. The campaign later collapsed when the army failed to secure its larger objective.
1228–1229
Frederick II used diplomacy rather than a large-scale military campaign. Negotiations resulted in Jerusalem being temporarily transferred to Christian control.
1248–1254
Louis IX of France launched an expedition against Egypt. The campaign failed and Louis was captured.
1270
Louis IX launched another expedition, this time toward Tunis. Disease and the death of the French king brought the campaign to an end.
1271–1272
Prince Edward of England conducted military operations in the eastern Mediterranean. The campaign produced limited results and did not recover Jerusalem.
THE GREAT TURNING POINT
In 1187, Saladin's forces defeated the main Crusader army at the Battle of Hattin. The defeat severely weakened the Kingdom of Jerusalem and opened the way for the recovery of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem surrendered to Saladin on 2 October 1187. The event triggered the Third Crusade, bringing rulers such as Richard I of England into the conflict.
Battle of Hattin
Jerusalem returns to Muslim control
Third Crusade begins
THE SHIFT IN POWER
The First Crusade demonstrated that Western European armies could establish powerful Crusader states in the Levant. However, maintaining those territories proved much more difficult.
Over the following decades, Muslim rulers increasingly united their territories and military resources. Leaders such as Nur al-Din and Saladin played major roles in consolidating Muslim power.
The decisive turning point came in 1187, when Saladin defeated the main Crusader army at the Battle of Hattin and subsequently recovered Jerusalem.
Jerusalem is captured by Crusader forces and several Crusader states are established in the Levant.
The County of Edessa, the first Crusader state to be established, falls to Muslim forces under Zengi.
Saladin defeats the main Crusader army at the Battle of Hattin, dramatically weakening the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem returns to Muslim control under Saladin after almost nine decades of Crusader rule.
Mamluk forces capture Acre, ending the major Crusader presence in the Holy Land.
Although the Crusaders achieved major successes during the First Crusade and several later campaigns produced temporary gains, they were unable to permanently restore Crusader control over Jerusalem.
By the end of the thirteenth century, Muslim powers had recovered the principal Crusader territories in the Levant. The fall of Acre in 1291 marked the end of the major Crusader presence in the region.
WHEN THE CAMPAIGNS BACKFIRED
Military success did not always produce long-term strategic success.
The Fourth Crusade diverted toward Constantinople instead of reaching the Holy Land. The capture and sack of the Byzantine capital weakened the Byzantine Empire and deepened divisions within Christianity.
Some campaigns produced short-term territorial gains, but maintaining those gains required continued military, financial and political support.
Muslim rulers increasingly consolidated territories and military resources, making it harder for Crusader states to survive.
Despite repeated expeditions and the efforts of powerful European rulers, Jerusalem was never permanently restored to Crusader control.
THE BIG PICTURE
The First Crusade achieved a spectacular military success and created Crusader states in the Levant.
The Third and Sixth Crusades achieved important but temporary or limited successes.
Later campaigns increasingly failed to recover territory or reverse the decline of Crusader states.
By 1291, Acre had fallen and the major Crusader presence in the Holy Land had effectively ended.
THE FINAL RECORD
Major Crusades
Major Early Crusader Victory
Important Partial / Temporary Successes
Fall of Acre
Highly Uncertain Death Estimated from both sides
Permanent Crusader Control of Jerusalem
HISTORICAL LEGACY
The Crusades influenced politics, religion, trade, warfare and relations between societies across Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.
Their consequences continued long after the major Crusader states disappeared. Studying the Crusades therefore requires looking beyond individual battles and examining the wider political and cultural world in which they occurred.
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