29 May 1453
The final Ottoman assault captured Constantinople after a siege lasting about seven weeks.
The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman army under Sultan Mehmed II marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and transformed the political landscape of the eastern Mediterranean.
EXPLORE THE EVENT βOne of the defining events of the fifteenth century
The final Ottoman assault captured Constantinople after a siege lasting about seven weeks.
The Ottoman Sultan personally directed the siege and final assault on the city.
The final Byzantine emperor participated in the defence and died during the city's capture.
The Byzantine Empire came to an end and the city became the Ottoman capital.
The long decline of the Byzantine Empire
Constantinople had been the capital of the Byzantine Empire for centuries. Founded as Constantinople by Emperor Constantine I in the fourth century, the city occupied a strategically important position between Europe and Asia.
By the fifteenth century, however, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to a small territory surrounding Constantinople and a few other possessions.
The growth of the Ottoman Empire placed increasing pressure on the city. Ottoman territories surrounded much of Constantinople, while the city's population and resources had declined considerably from earlier centuries.
Despite its weakened position, Constantinople remained one of the most important political, religious and cultural centres of the eastern Mediterranean.
The defenders of Constantinople faced a much larger Ottoman force.
Emperor Constantine XI led the defence of the city with Byzantine soldiers supported by foreign volunteers and defenders from several communities.
Sultan Mehmed II assembled a large army supported by artillery, naval forces and engineers for the siege of Constantinople.
Planning, artillery and control of the Bosporus
Sultan Mehmed II became determined to capture Constantinople after becoming Ottoman ruler in 1451. He prepared carefully for the campaign and strengthened Ottoman control over the waterways surrounding the city.
The Ottomans constructed Rumeli HisarΔ± on the European shore of the Bosporus. The fortress helped restrict movement through the strait and supported the Ottoman strategy of isolating Constantinople.
Mehmed also gathered large quantities of artillery. Among the weapons used during the siege were enormous cannons designed to batter the city's famous walls.
For centuries, the Theodosian Walls had protected Constantinople from numerous attacks. In 1453, Ottoman artillery and repeated assaults subjected those defences to unprecedented pressure.
The major stages of the siege
Ottoman forces arrived before Constantinople and began their siege of the city.
Ottoman artillery repeatedly bombarded the city's land walls, attempting to create breaches in the defences.
Ottoman ships were transported overland into the Golden Horn, bypassing the defensive chain that blocked the harbour.
Ottoman forces launched their final assault. The city's defences were overwhelmed and Constantinople was captured.
Before dawn on 29 May, Ottoman forces launched their final major assault against Constantinople.
Waves of Ottoman troops attacked the city's weakened defensive positions. The defenders fought to hold the walls while the Ottoman artillery continued to play a major role in the siege.
Eventually, Ottoman forces entered the city. Emperor Constantine XI died during the fighting, bringing the Byzantine imperial line to an end.
After the capture, Mehmed II entered Constantinople and established the city as the new Ottoman imperial capital.
Constantinople enters a new era
Constantinople became the centre of Ottoman imperial administration and continued to grow in importance.
The capture marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, whose political history had lasted for more than a thousand years.
Ottoman control of Constantinople strengthened the empire's position between southeastern Europe, Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean.
The fall of Constantinople was a major turning point in the history of southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.
It transformed the balance of power between the Ottoman Empire and the Christian states of Europe, while Constantinople became a major centre of Ottoman political and cultural life.
The event is also often associated with the transition from the medieval to early modern period, although historians debate how useful a single date is for defining such a broad historical transition.
The city's capture remains one of the most studied sieges in military and world history.
The fall of Constantinople ended the Byzantine Empire and began a new chapter in the history of one of the world's most strategically important cities.
Under Ottoman rule, Constantinople developed into a major imperial capital whose influence extended across Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean.
The events of 1453 continue to symbolize the changing political landscape of the late medieval world.
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